Publications – Page 8 – Pacific Institute

Global Freshwater Resources: Soft-Path Solutions for the 21st Century

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Twentieth century water policies relied on the construction of massive infrastructure in the form of dams, aqueducts, pipelines, and complex centralized treatment plants to meet human demands. These facilities brought tremendous benefits to billions of people, but they also had serious and often unanticipated social, economic, and ecological costs. A transition is under way to a “soft path” that complements centralized physical infrastructure with lower cost community-scale systems, decentralized and open decision-making, water markets and equitable pricing, the application of efficient technology, and environmental protections.

This article was featured in the December 2003 issue of Science Magazine.

West Oakland Residents Choking on Toxic Diesel Exhaust

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Residents of West Oakland are exposed to far more than their fair share of toxic diesel pollution. To examine the impacts of diesel pollution on West Oakland communities, the Pacific Institute created this report in partnership with the West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project and the Coalition for West Oakland Revitalization. Residents were employed to conduct on-the-ground research, looking at innovative ways to raaaw fulleduce truck traffic and pollution in residential areas and improve community health. The report offers solutions that could improve air quality without harming industry.

Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California

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The largest, least expensive, and most environmentally sound source of water to meet California’s future needs is the water currently being wasted in every sector of our economy. That’s the core message of a major new report on urban water use in California released by the Pacific Institute of Oakland, California. “Waste Not, Want Not: The Potential for Urban Water Conservation in California,”in preparation for three years, is the first report to look comprehensively at residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial water use in the state — and then evaluate the potential for reducing this use through conservation and efficiency.

Despite the progress California has already made in improving water efficiency, “Waste Not, Want Not” estimates that up to one-third of California’s current urban water use — more than 2.3 million acre-feet — can be saved using existing technology. And at least 85% of this savings (over 2 million acre-feet) can be saved at costs below what it will cost to tap into new sources of supply and without the social, environmental, and economic impacts that any major water project will bring.

Resources

Appendix A: Indoor Residential Water Use and the Potential for Conservation

Appendix B: Outdoor Residential Water Use and the Potential for Conservation

Appendix C: Industrial and Commercial Water Use: Glossary, Data, and Methods of Analysis

Appendix D: Details of Commercial and Industrial Assumptions, by End Use

Appendix E: Details of Commercial Water Use and Potential Savings, by Sector

Appendix F: Details of Industrial Water Use and Potential Savings, by Sector

Appendix G: CII Conservation Potential by Region: Discussion

Climate Change and California Water Resources: A Survey and Summary of the Literature

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A new revision of a report on climate change and California water resources is now available. The report was prepared by the Pacific Institute for the California Energy Commission’s Public Interest Energy Research (PIER) Program.

Water Efficiency Testimony

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Hearing: Water: Is it the ‘Oil’ of the 21st Century?
Testimony of Dr. Peter H. Gleick
Before the Subcommittee on Water Resources and Environment
Of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure
United States Congress
June 4, 2003

Mr. Chairman, Representatives: thank you for inviting me to offer comments on the importance of water for our nation and on new ways of thinking about protecting, preserving, and sustainably using that precious resource.

There are two ways to think about the title of this hearing: Is Water the Oil of the 21st Century? First, are we going to permit water to become a commodity like oil, to be overpumped, underpriced, and used wastefully, leading to water wars, international conflict and competition, and environmental destruction? Or second, can we avoid the problems that have arisen with the stupid use of oil by planning for efficient use of water, environmental protection when we extract it and use it, proper allocation, and international cooperation.

My testimony will focus on one piece of what we call “the soft path for water” – improving the efficient and wise use of this precious resource. My single most important conclusion? Water conservation and efficiency are the greatest untapped sources of water in this nation – cheaper, cleaner, and more politically acceptable than any other alternative.

National Water Challenges

As we enter the 21st century, pressures on the water resources of the United States are growing and conflicts among water users are worsening. Attention to these problems is growing, as shown by the recent consideration by Congress of a new National Water Commission, the Department of the Interior’s 2025 report, and new disputes with Mexico over our shared water resources. Awareness of the importance of water is also growing internationally as evidenced by the focus on water at the Johannesburg Earth Summit and the Kyoto Third World Water Forum. Moreover, 2003 has been declared the International Year of Freshwater by the United Nations.

In addition to growing tensions over allocations of water, the United States faces new water challenges. Climate change is increasingly threatening the operation and design of our expensive water systems. Controversy is developing over the proper role of expensive dams and infrastructure, private corporations, and local communities in managing water. Municipalities are faced with billions of dollars of infrastructure needs and growing disputes over the role of public and private water management. Arguments among western states over allocations of shared rivers are rising, as are tensions between cities and farmers over water rights. The U.S. and Mexico have unresolved disagreements over the Colorado and Rio Grande/Rio Bravo rivers, and our Canadian neighbors are concerned about proposals to divert Great Lakes or Canadian water for U.S. use. Communities are facing new challenges in meeting water quality standards and ensuring that safe drinking water is available for all.

Yet the United States has not offered adequate leadership in providing resources, education, and our vast technological and financial experience to address these problems.

Responding to Water Challenges: A New Focus on Reducing Wasteful and Inefficient Uses of Water

In many cases, the resolution of these problems requires smart state and local action. But national policies and actions are also needed, as is leadership at the national level. Unfortunately, there is inadequate attention being given to national water issues, and what efforts are being made are often contradictory or counterproductive. Responsibility for water is spread out over many federal agencies and departments, operating with no overall coordination.

The focus of water planners and managers in the 20th century was finding ways “to increase water supplies in every region of the country.” This cannot be the approach in the 21st century. Overall water supply is not a problem, with some regional exceptions. And even in these regions, increasing supplies is the most costly, slow, and environmentally damaging response. The greatest water problems facing the United States are not lack of infrastructure, but inefficient use, inappropriate water allocations, water pollution, and ecological destruction.

Indeed, water use in the United States has decreased in the past 20 years, reducing pressure on overall supply, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows that total economic growth in the U.S. has continued, even as overall water use has leveled off and even declined. On a per-person basis, this decrease is substantial, as shown in Figure 2. Per-capita use in the U.S. has decreased 20 percent since 1980 – a remarkable change. Moreover, where the problem is “shortage,” the fastest, cheapest, and most environmentally acceptable solution will not be an increase in “supply” but a reallocation of existing uses and improvements in efficiency.

Some examples?

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California dropped water use 16 percent from 1990, despite a 14 percent increase in population.

Smart conservation and smart watershed management has saved NYC billions of dollars in avoided expenditures for new supply and water and wastewater treatment plants. Total water use in 2001 was 25 percent below the level of 1979, a savings of 375 million gallons per day.

Water-efficiency programs in the Boston area have reduce water use 30 percent since the late 1980s and eliminated the need for a new dam.

Albuquerque reduced per-capita water use 30 percent between 1989 and 2001 with toilet and washing machine rebate programs, and landscape retrofits.

The City of Seattle has grown 30 percent since 1975 but total water use has remained the same through strong conservation programs. Over this period, per-capita use has dropped from 150 gallons per person per day to around 115 gallons per person per day.

Steel manufacturing in the US used to require 200 tons of water to make a ton of steel. Today, the best steel plants use 3 to 4 tons of water per ton of steel.

Drip and precision sprinkler systems can both boost crop yields and reduce water demands.

What is particularly exciting and important is that no water agency, city, or state has exploited the full potential for improving efficiency and reducing wasteful use. In California, despite years of talk and many innovative actions, we estimate that additional cost-effective reductions in commercial and industrial water use of 40 percent are possible with existing technologies. Even greater savings are possible in the residential sector. And vast savings are possible in agriculture, while keeping a healthy and productive farming sector.

The challenge is reducing unfair pricing structures that encourage wasteful use of water, investing in smart water-wise technology, recycle and reuse water for the right purposes, and educate people about the potential for using water wisely and the benefits of doing so.

Water conservation and efficiency not only makes sense, they make more sense than any other alternative available to us.

Thank you for your attention.

Dr. Peter H. Gleick

[…]

Download the full testimony here

Testimony on Water Efficiency: Is Water the ‘Oil” of the 21st Century?

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Testimony of Dr. Peter H. Gleick
Before the Subcommittee on Water Resources and Environment
Of the Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure
United States Congress

Hearing: Water: Is it the ‘Oil’ of the 21st Century?
June 4, 2003

Download the full testimony here

On the Need for a National Water Commission for the 21st Century

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Testimony of Dr. Peter H. Gleick Before the Legislative Hearing of the Subcommittee on Water and Power Of the Committee on Resources United States Congress

On the Need for a National Water Commission for the 21st Century

April 1, 2003

Mr. Chairman, Representatives: thank you for inviting me to offer comments on the need for a National Water Commission for the 21st Century. I believe there is indeed need for such a Commission, and on March 10, 2003, the Pacific Institute called for its creation in a letter to the President and members of Congress. I have attached for the record a copy of that letter.

The United States has not had a national water commission in place for 30 years, since the 1968 National Water Commission reported to the President and Congress in 1973. Moreover, we have never had a national water commission with the authority and responsibility to review and recommend on the role of the U.S. in addressing international water issues. My comments today will address the idea of a Commission generally, with some detailed recommendations. I will also provide specific comments on H.R. 135, a bill proposed to establish such a Commission. In short, the idea of such a Commission is an excellent one; but I believe the Findings and Duties as described in H.R. 135 need clarification and revision if the Commission is to adequately deal with the water challenges facing us.

International and Domestic Water Challenges

As we enter the 21st century, pressures on United States and international water resources are growing and conflicts among water users are worsening. International attention to these problems is growing, as shown by the focus on water at the Johannesburg Earth Summit and the Kyoto Third World Water Forum. Moreover, 2003 has been declared the International Year of Freshwater by the United Nations. Globally, the realization is growing that the failure to meet basic human and environmental needs for water is the greatest development disaster of the 20th century. Millions of people, mostly young children, die annually from preventable water-related diseases. Climate change is increasingly threatening our own water systems and water resources abroad. Controversy is developing over the proper role of expensive dams and infrastructure, private corporations, and local communities in managing water. Yet the United States has not offered adequate leadership in providing resources, education, and our vast technological and financial experience to address these problems.

Here at home, municipalities are faced with billions of dollars of infrastructure needs and growing disputes over the role of public and private water management. Arguments among western states over allocations of shared rivers are rising, as are tensions between cities and farmers over water rights. The U.S. and Mexico have unresolved disagreements over the Colorado and Rio Grande/Rio Bravo rivers, and our Canadian neighbors are concerned about proposals to divert Great Lakes or Canadian water for U.S. use. Communities are facing new challenges in meeting water quality standards and ensuring that safe drinking water is available for all.

Responding to Water Challenges: A New Water Commission

It is time for a new national water commission. The Pacific Institute has called for the creation of a National Commission on Water for the 21st Century to provide guidance and direction on the appropriate role of the United States in addressing national and international water issues. The Commission must be non-partisan and include representation from across the many disciplines affected, including the sciences, economics, public policy, law, governments, public interest groups, and appropriate private sectors. While the duration of the Commission should be fixed, adequate financial resources should be provided to permit it to do a serious and effective job. The goals of the Commission should include:

· Re-evaluate national water science and policy and offer guidance on integrating efforts now scattered among disparate and uncoordinatedfederal agencies and departments. National budget priorities should also be re-evaluated and re-structured to ensure that the national objectives are more clearly supported.

· Recommend revisions or better enforcement of national laws related to water, including laws governing water quality, the protection of aquatic ecosystems, the financing of water infrastructure, and national standards for improving water-use efficiency and conservation.

· Develop recommendations for flood and drought management, including implementing overdue changes proposed by previous reviews.

· Work to ensure the physical security of the nation’s water, by highlighting necessary steps that could be taken to reduce overlap and streamline responsibilities of the multiple federal agencies working on water issues.

· Develop recommendations for the U.S. role in identifying and addressing global water problems, including how to significantly accelerate efforts to meet the large and devastating unmet basic human needs for water in poorer countries. These recommendations should address how best to apply the vast financial, educational, technological, and institutional expertise of the United States to these problems.

· Explore how to deal with the risks of climatic changes, including how to adapt to the growing and potentially severe impacts of global warming for water resources.

· Make recommendations for reducing the risks of international tensions over shared water resources, including how to resolve concerns with our own neighbors, Mexico and Canada, over shared water systems. These recommendations would be valuable in other international river basins where our experience, international stature, and expertise can be effective.

The Need for U.S Leadership

It is past time for an integrated and comprehensive national water strategy and for a stronger effort by this nation in solving water problems abroad. While many water issues will remain local, to be resolved by community participation and efforts, our national government can no longer ignore the positive and effective role it can play both here and abroad.

The need for such integrated thinking was further made apparent at the global water conference in Kyoto, Japan, which ended just one week ago. The meeting involved 10,000 of the world’s leading water experts as well as a Ministerial meeting involving senior diplomatic officials from more than 150 countries. It offered an opportunity to demonstrate the commitment of the international community, nations, and non-governmental organizations to resolve serious water problems. The United States, with its great technical, financial, and educational expertise, is perfectly positioned to be a world leader in addressing water problems, yet the U.S. delegation came without the comprehensive, integrated, and informed positions necessary to play a leadership role. Indeed, the United States is perceived to be a marginal player, making contributions well below our capability and stature as a world leader. And while money is not the only answer, the size of the U.S. financial contribution to meeting basic water needs around the world is paltry – actually only one-quarter the size of Japan’s and even less than Germany’s. Instead, world leadership on these issues is being played by the Netherlands, Japanese, French, British, Germans, and others.

It doesn’t have to be this way. A more coordinated and considered set of positions on the size and form of U.S. contributions to global water problems, including financial, technological, and educational, could be developed by the National Water Commission for the 21st Century.

Comments on H.R. 135 “Twenty-First Century Water Commission”

Finally, I’d like to offer specific comments on H.R. 135. I commend Congressman Linder and his co-signers for proposing this bill. As my preceding testimony should make obvious, I strongly support the creation of a national commission. I believe, however that this bill, as written, will not meet the needs of the nation.

In particular, the “Findings” of this bill are somewhat misdirected and the “Duties,” while well-intentioned, are too limited and occasionally inappropriate. In particular, the Findings emphasize the need “to increase water supplies in every region of the country.” Overall water supply is not a problem, with some regional exceptions. And even in these regions, increasing supplies does not appear to be the most efficient, cost-effective, and timely response. The greatest water problems facing the United States are not shortages, but inefficient use, inappropriate water allocations, water pollution, and ecological destruction. Indeed, water use in the United States has decreased in the past 20 years, reducing pressure on overall supply. On a per-person basis, this decrease is substantial, as shown in Figure 1. Per-capita use in the U.S. has decreased 20 percent since 1980 – a remarkable change. Figure 2 shows that total economic growth in the U.S. has continued, even as overall water use has leveled off and even declined. Moreover, where the problem is “shortage,” the fastest, cheapest, and most environmentally acceptable solution will not be an increase in “supply” but a reallocation of existing uses and improvements in efficiency.

Most of the proposed “Duties” of the Commission are clear and well designed. But others could be strengthened and refocused: Duty (2) should not be “directed at increasing water supplies” but “directed at improving water use and reliability.” Duty (3)(E) should not be aimed at “increasing water supply efficiently while safeguarding the environment” but at “improving water-use efficiency and reliability of water supplies while safeguarding the environment.” Duty (3)(F) should not recommend “means of capturing excess water and flood water” but should rather “means for managing floods using appropriate structural and non-structural approaches.” This would be in line with recent federal recommendations on comprehensive flood management.

Duty (3)(G) asks for recommendations on “financing options for public works projects.” While this would be useful, given growing constraints on funding at the national and local levels, it should be broadened to make recommendations on “financing options for comprehensive water management projects.” Duty (3)(I) asks for recommendations on “other objectives related to water supply.” Again, this should be broadened to make recommendations on “other objectives related to water management.”

On a relatively minor point: I believe the number of Commissioners should be larger than 7, as proposed in Section 5, paragraph (a). Given the diverse nature of the nation’s waters, and the complex set of issues that must be addressed, broader representation is necessary. Finally, I reiterate the need to expand the scope of the Commission to address the role of the United States in solving international water problems.

I congratulate you for considering this vital issue and for helping to raise national attention on the need to re-evaluate and re-focus efforts on sustainably managing our precious freshwater resources. Thank you for your attention.

Dr. Peter H. Gleick

Resources

Figure 1. Per-capita water withdrawals in the United States, from 1900to the present. Total use is now below 550,000 gallons per person per year, down from over 700,000 in 1975. Data are from the U.S. Geological Survey.

Figure 2. Total gross domestic product (GDP) of the United States and total water withdrawals: 1900 to present. Note that total economic growth has continued, but total water withdrawals (for all purposes) have leveled off, and Q10 9even declined since 1980. Graph reproduced from Gleick, 2000 “The World’s Water”(Island Press, Washington, D.C.)

National Water Commission Letter

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President George W. Bush
The White House
1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20500

March 11, 2003

Dear President Bush,

The Pacific Institute is calling today for the creation of a National Water Commission for the 21st Century to direct an aggressive new effort to protect our national water resources and to advise the country on how to best to participate in addressing the global water crisis. The benefits of such an effort will include a stronger national economy, improved international security, and more sustainable water use around the world.

Yet, as we enter the 21st century, pressures on water resources here and abroad are growing and conflicts among water users are worsening. Millions of people, mostly young children, die annually in the poorest countries from preventable water-related diseases. Controversy is growing over the proper role of expensive dams and infrastructure, private corporations, and local communities in managing water. Climate change, development, and pollution are increasingly threatening our own water systems and water resources in other nations.

In the United States, municipalities are faced with billions of dollars of infrastructure needs and growing disputes over the role of public and private water management. Arguments among western states over allocations of shared rivers are rising, as are tensions between cities and farmers over water rights. The U.S. and Mexico have unresolved disagreements over the Colorado and Rio Grande/Rio Bravo rivers, and our Canadian neighbors are concerned about proposals to divert Great Lakes or Canadian water for U.S. use. Communities are facing new challenges in meeting water quality standards and ensuring safe drinking water is available for all. […]

Download the full letter here

Valuing Water for Better Governance: How To Promote Dialogue To Balance Social, Environmental, And Economic Values?

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Solving the freshwater crisis requires significantly more investment and spending in the water sector, but getting more money requires broad agreement among stakeholders. This paper suggests that a powerful way of obtaining broader agreement is to clarify through dialogues values, value differences, and common ground. Through this process, stakeholders may be willing to pay more for water systems and their governance, enabling water systems and their managers to deliver more value to people and businesses. This paper develops an initial intellectual framework for such dialogue.

This paper was sponsored by the Business and Industry CEO Panel for Water and was originally presented at the 3rd World Water Forum in March 2003.

Pacific Institute Releases 15-Year Anniversary Report

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Dear Friends and Colleagues, I am excited to announce the publication of the Pacific Institute’s Fifteenth Anniversary Report. The report details the work of our various programs, covers their successes and results, and offers history and background about some of the most pressing challenges we face: climate change, threats to our water resources, terrorism and conflict, the perils of globalization, and the importance of environmental justice. Our research has won us acclaim in many different fields. But even friends of the Pacific Institute are often surprised at the wide range We also want to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to our colleagues and supporters: You’ve played an important part in our growth and success and we thank you for it. You may also notice that our report and this cover letter feature a new logo and “look.” Although we have updated our appearance, rest assured that our values, mission, and vision are unchanged.of work we do and our many accomplishments over the years. We hope that readers will come away with a better understanding of both the issues at hand, our work on various subjects, and the Pacific Institute as a whole. On the occasion of our fifteenth anniversary – and despite the ominous events in the wider world – we’ve had time to reflect, plan, and celebrate. And although we do not know what future events will bring, I remain optimistic that open, independent research, innovative and original analysis, and advocacy driven by science instead of ideology can lead to a better world for all. Sincerely yours, Peter H. Gleick President

Fact Sheet on the Proposed Imperial Valley-San Diego Water Transfer

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On December 9, 2002 the Imperial Valley Irrigation district voted not to transfer water to San Diego as outlined in the Hertzberg negotiated settlement. This means that the proposed Quantification Settlement Agreement (QSA) will not go forward. If this deal falls through, California’s Metropolitan Water District (MWD) will get 800,000 acre-feet less water next year. Although MWD claims that they have enough storage for the next two years, this water reduction could have serious consequences for California.

According to Michael Cohen, Senior Research Associate with the Pacific Institute, “California’s impending water crisis could have been avoided had environmental and community interests helped to craft the transfer agreement. Instead, community and environmental impacts were ignored until too late. For California to live within its means, the full range of water impacts must be addressed.” Mr. Cohen also noted that: “Interior’s decision to separate the water transfer from the Salton Sea is at least partly responsible for California’s current water crisis. Interior needs to step up and protect the Salton Sea, so that the water transfer may proceed.”

The Pacific Institute has put together this web page to explain the possible consequences and implications.

Background:

It is looking very unlikely that any Imperial Valley-San Diego water transfer will be completed by December 31.
Without a transfer, the Quantification Settlement Agreement (QSA) will not be executed by December 31.
In turn, the Secretary of Interior to suspend surplus deliveries to California next year.
This means that roughly 800,000 acre-feet less water will be provided to California (An acre-foot is enough to supply two households of four people for a year).
This reduction in supply will initially be borne entirely by Metropolitan Water District (MWD). MWD delivers water to approximately 17 million people in southern California.
Colorado River water comprises 30% of these current deliveries (the rest come from local supplies and northern California).
MWD claims to have sufficient storage to make it through the next 2 years

Possible near-term consequences:

Imperial Valley Irrigation District (IID) farmers could attempt to circumvent IID and contract directly with San Diego for their water.
IID farmers could sue IID for failing to fulfill their trust responsibilities.
The California legislature might pass legislation dissolving IID.
The California legislature might pass legislation separating IID’s water and power divisions, making the water division solely responsive to farmers (by voting based on acreage).
The Governor could declare a state of emergency and temporarily reallocate water from IID to MWD.
The Bureau of Reclamation might review the reasonability of IID’s water use and reduce deliveries by 400,000+ acre-feet.

Consequences for the Salton Sea:

Either of the above could immediately reduce flows to the Salton Sea, increasing salinity and possibly shocking the system, increasing the incidence of dead birds and fish, especially over the longer term.
Such immediate reductions will also make it much more difficult to ever restore the Salton Sea as a whole
The Salton Sea is an inland body of water located near the Mexican border that is fed by agricultural flows from the Imperial Valley. Despite being fed by runoff, the Salton Sea is an important habitat for birds, fish, and other creatures.

Visit the Salton Sea Information Page

Environmental Security: A Case Study of Climate Change

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From increases in infectious diseases and uncertainty in food markets to more frequent and intense natural disasters, increased CO2 emissions have the potential to destabilize economies and spark global conflict. This interdisciplinary paper uses climate change to illustrate the interdependent relationship between national security and environmental health. The report suggests that curbing the causes of climate change would serve the security interests of the United States and its global partners.

Dirty Water: Estimated Deaths from Water Related Diseases 2000-2020

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Inadequate access to safe drinking water and sanitation systems is a critical human health issue that impacts billions of people around the globe. The failure to meet basic human needs for water is widely acknowledged as a major development failure of the 20th century, resulting in sickness, lost educational and employment opportunities, and early death.

This report looks at three different scenarios and concludes that even if we achieve the United Nations Millennium Goals, which aim to cut the proportion of people without clean drinking water by half, 34 to 76 million people could perish by 2020 due to water-related diseases.The UN Millennium Goals, while important quantitative targets, are inadequate alone: they must be coupled with specific, aggressive commitments on the part of countries and international organizations.

Water Management: Soft Water Paths

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Despite massive investment and effort, at the end of the 20th century 2.4 billion people lacked sanitation services of the standard available to most citizens of ancient Rome. Additionally, more than one billion people around the world lacked adequate clean drinking water.

This report explores the “soft path” to achieving an adequate, sustainable water supply. Soft water approaches complement existing, traditional approaches to water management, but rather than relying on centralized infrastructure and new sources of supply, the “soft path” to water management invests in decentralized facilities, efficient technologies and policies, and human capital. It delivers water services that are matched to the needs of end users on multiple social scales, while avoiding ecologically damaging, socially intrusive and capital-intensive projects that may fail to deliver their promised benefits.

Resources

PowerPoint Presentation: Bridging the Gap: The “Soft Path” and Water Wedge Strategies

The World’s Water, Volume 3

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The third volume in the The World’s Water book series, The World’s Water: 2002-2003 explores and proposes solutions to a variety of critical water issues including the global water crisis, global warming and water, the privatization and globalization of water, and and water-related conflicts. The central thrust of the third volume in this highly regarded series is that we must rethink the way we capture, distribute, and use water if we are to meet the challenges of increasing scarcity and growing populations. In the lead chapter, Peter Gleick describes one potential solution to the growing global water crisis: a “soft path” for water, which seeks to deliver water-related services matched to users’ needs as well as resource availability, rather than relying on centralized infrastructure and technology and institutions developed in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Resources

Introduction Brief: Water in Outer Space Chapter 1: The Soft Path for Water Chapter 5: Pacific Island Developing Country Water Resources and Climate Change Table 10: Irrigated Area, by Region, 1961 to 1999 Table 12: Number of Dams, by Continent and Country Table 14: Regional Statistics on Large Dams Table 15: Commissioning of Large Dams in the 20th Century, by Decade

In this Series

Volume 9 Volume 8 Volume 7 Volume 6 Volume 5 Volume 4 Volume 2 Volume 1

Fire and Water: An Examination of the Technologies, Institutions, and Social Issues in Arms Control and Transboundary Water-Resources Agreements

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Almost every major river in the world is shared by two or more nations, and conflicts over water, already serious in some places, will likely grow over the coming years as climate change, pollution, and population growth take their toll. This report explores how technologies developed to control the spread of weapons can be used to improve agreements over shared natural resources. Additionally, it considers how natural resource management can inform the field of arms control.

This report is based on the findings of a 2002 workshop sponsored by the Pacific Institute, Oregon State University, and Sandia National Laboratory that explored the connections between the fields of arms control and natural resource management. It appeared in the journal Environmental Change and Security Project Report, published by the Woodrow Wilson Center.

The New Economy of Water: The Risks and Benefits of Globalization and Privatization of Fresh Water

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In an increasingly globalized economy, the privatization of water as an economic good has sparked complex debate. In some cases, privatization has expanded access to water services when governments have failed to do so. But, in many others, concerns over water quality, price increases, and access issues have led to serious clashes between communities and private companies. Despite opposition from community groups, water privatization is likely to increase in the coming years, making the establishment of guidelines essential to ensuring equitable water access, sound ecological practices, and proper regulatory oversight.

In this comprehensive examination of the costs and benefits of water privatization, the authors determine guidelines for equitable privatization using case studies that represent a spectrum of privatization outcomes.

Neighborhood Knowledge for Change: The West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project

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The Environmental Indicators Project is the culmination of two years of research, analysis, and collaboration between the grassroots advocacy group The 7th St./McClymonds Corridor Neighborhood Improvement Initiative, community residents, and the Pacific Institute. After in-depth discussions with a neighborhood-based steering committee, the Pacific Institute created a set of 17 indicators to track environmental conditions in West Oakland. The indicators address issues ranging from air pollution and toxic contamination to gentrification and voting challenges.

Healthy, Fair, and Profitable: A Win-Win Pesticide Policy

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This report released by the Pacific Institute and the California Green Scissors project makes the case for changing the way pesticides are regulated in California. According to the report, if California significantly increased its funding for sustainable agriculture — instead of just spending money to regulate pesticide usage — we could aid California farmers, improve the public health and save millions of dollars in associated costs.

Creating a Framework for Sustainability in California: Lessons Learned from the New Zealand Experience

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New Zealand’s attempt to integrate environmental protection and resource management with a “goals-based” policy framework can help serve as a guide for California as it continues to grapple with resource scarcity.

This report assesses key principles and strategies that can inform policy in California. These principles include integrated management of environmental media, decentralization, public participation, flexibility, and accountability. This report also evaluates the process by which the New Zealand Resource Management Act (RMA) was established and implemented, and makes specific recommendations for how certain elements of the RMA could be considered in California’s pursuit of more effective and efficient environmental policies.

Op-Ed: Don’t Drill the Arctic: Renewable Energy is Safer, Cleaner, More Secure

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Full Op-Ed

The terror attacks of September 11 have brought the vulnerabilities of modern America into stunning relief. Our airports, airplanes and office buildings were far more open to attack then most imagined. And, according to many policy makers and scientists, so is our oil-based economy.

While the federal government has responded admirably to the immediate threat of attacks against our pipelines and pumping stations, on the larger question of how we power our nation, it is moving in the wrong direction. Its proposed energy plan, now being considered by Congress, is filled with ill-considered ideas, such as drilling the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and cutting funding for renewable energy research and energy efficiency programs.

Reducing our demand for imported oil is certainly a laudable goal, but we can’t drill our way to energy independence. The reason is simple: America has, by best estimates, only 3 percent of the world’s oil reserves. And the amount present in the Arctic wildlife refuge is only a tiny fraction of that. The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that there is only a six-month supply of easily recoverable oil under the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and analysts have predicted that it will take five to seven years to tap.

While drilling in the Arctic refuge will do little to reduce our need for foreign oil, it will seriously damage an irreplaceable piece of our national heritage. The Arctic wildlife refuge is the last 5 percent of Alaska’s north coast not currently open to oil exploration and it plays an essential role in the Arctic’s web of life. Drilling operations could imperil habitat for hundreds of animals and permanently harm a national treasure.

The good news is there are a host of ways to enhance our energy security without sacrificing our precious places.

Cost-effective measures, such as improving the energy efficiency of our homes and offices, could cut our national energy use by one-third over the next decade – saving, in a single year, twice the amount of oil available in the Arctic refuge.

A recent report by the Union of Concerned Scientists also concluded that we can meet 20 percent of our nation’s electricity needs within 20 years using a variety of renewable energy sources and energy-saving measures. This would save in 20 years more oil than can be easily taken from the Arctic refuge in 60 years.

Increasing automobile fuel-efficiency to an average of 40 miles per gallon would save three million barrels of oil, more than our daily imports from the Persian Gulf. This goal is economically viable and technically within reach. It is thus regrettable that Congress recently rejected legislation to modestly increase fuel-efficiency standards.

Moving towards renewable and diffuse energy sources, such as solar energy, would also reduce the threat of terrorist attacks on major power infrastructure, such as pipelines and refineries. The vulnerability of this infrastructure was highlighted a few weeks ago when a deranged gunman fired several bullets into a pipeline connected to the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, releasing nearly 300,000 gallons of crude oil and shutting down shipment of 17 percent of the nation’s oil production.

Speeding the transition to renewable energy can dramatically reduce our dependence on imported oil, decrease potential terrorist
targets and protect our natural resources. Instead of cutting spending on renewable research and drilling precious places, our elected officials should move the United States away from fossil fuels and towards clean, renewable sources of energy.

This op-ed first appeared in The Columbus Dispatch on November 1, 2001 and in The Monterey County Herald on December 2, 2001.

Threats to the World’s Freshwater Resources

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As we move into the 21st century, water managers and policymakers must face new threats to the world’s freshwater resources. These threats include pollution, the impacts of climate change, a resurgence of water-related diseases, and the destruction of freshwater ecosystems. Despite the pressing nature of these threats, water institutions and policymakers have, so far, been largely unable to develop the tools and approaches needed to address these problems.

Threats to the World’s Freshwater Resources focuses on four emerging threats and challenges: water and ecosystem health, the destruction of freshwater ecosystems; freshwater quality concerns; and long-term global climate change and its impact of water resources. Our report also offers several new solutions and approaches to the problem. First among these is a realization that sustainable use of freshwater requires a new dialogue on the ultimate ends to be served by water management.

Defining Transparency: Expectations and Obstacles

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The proceedings of a recent workshop jointly hosted by the Pacific Institute and the Global Environmental Management Initiative (GEMI) are now available.

The workshop was held so that industry and public interest groups could discuss and hopefully agree on the meaning of “corporate transparency” — and the best way to achieve it.

The discussion was informal and productive, providing both groups an opportunity to learn from one another on how businesses can improve upon the effectiveness and credibility of their environmental management and performance.

Op-Ed: A Proposal to Preserve and Enhance Habitat at the Salton Sea

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Recent discussions and legislative efforts at the state and federal level have again focused attention on the Salton Sea. These recent discussions, on the potential impacts on the Salton Sea of a proposed water transfer from Imperial Valley to the San Diego area, have highlighted the challenges faced by those working to address the current and future problems of the Sea, and the inadequacy of any temporary or piecemeal approach. Efforts to facilitate the proposed water effort are further hampered by indications that the federal/state Salton Sea restoration effort will be unlikely to achieve its own limited goals if the water transfer is implemented.

The current problems of the Salton Sea, manifested in frequent die-offs of fish and birds, arise from a complex set of human and natural factors. These include the high concentration of nutrients in agricultural run-off (creating an overly-productive system that can rob organisms of oxygen) and the combination of a hot arid climate, a below-sea level depression with no natural outlet save evaporation, and relatively salty Colorado River water that accumulates additional salts when used to leach fields. Fish and bird mortality at the Sea is more directly linked to nutrient inputs (exacerbated by the Sea’s high salinity); the inexorable rise in salinity is a future problem, one that will ultimately prove intolerable to fish in the Sea, and largely eliminating the Sea as a resource for fish-eating birds. A reduction in inflows to the Sea, due to the proposed water transfer and various other current and proposed actions, would accelerate the Sea’s transition to a water body unable to support fish.

In an effort to satisfy the dual objectives of addressing the ecological health of the Salton Sea and facilitating the proposed water transfer, the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security proposes a Salton Sea Habitat Enhancement Project. This project involves the construction of long dikes at the north and south ends of the Salton Sea, in conjunction with the development of constructed wetlands along the Alamo and New rivers and the implementation of management practices to reduce nutrient loads from agricultural, municipal, and industrial sources. The diked areas would capture inflows and maintain elevation near current levels, with excess waters flowing through pipes in the dikes to the main body of the Sea. These impounded north and south shore areas would transition to brackish, estuarine conditions, preserving and enhancing fisheries and assuring a food source for fish-eating birds such as brown and white pelicans and cormorants. The stability and lower salinity of the impounded areas would also promote increased recreation and economic development. This project builds upon the recommendation included in the Pacific Institute May 2000 comments on the Salton Sea Restoration Project draft EIS/EIR.

The proposed project offers the following benefits:

1. Compatible with water re-allocation efforts

2. Sustainable over the long term

3. Increases diversity of habitats at the Salton Sea

4. Preserves and enhances fisheries in impounded areas

5. Promotes increased recreational and economic development opportunities

6. Compatible with other off-site actions

The proposed action is not a simple fix, nor would it be inexpensive. Yet it is our belief that the Salton Sea merits attention and intervention, and should not be simply ignored. It is also our belief that state and federal authorities will not be interested in repeated, small-scale interventions that do not address the root causes of the current problems afflicting the Sea, and certainly will not be interested in projects that are incompatible with California’s stated objective of reducing its dependence on the Colorado River.

Missing Water: The Uses and Flows of Water in the Colorado River Delta Region

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This report describes the fate of the water diverted from the Colorado River at and below Imperial Dam, as well as the total inflows to and outflows from the Colorado River Delta region from 1991-1998, using the classic hydrologic boundaries of the delta region described by Godfrey Sykes in 1937. This report represents the first time comprehensive flow data was compiled for the entire Colorado River Delta region.

Resources

Article: MJ Cohen, C Henges-Jeck, and G Castillo-Moreno. 2001. A preliminary water balance for the Colorado River delta, 1992-1998. Journal of Arid Environments 49:35-48.

A New Vigilance: Identifying and Reducing the Risks of Environmental Terrorism

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As the global population increases, the world’s existing resources — water, energy, soil, and more — are being consumed at an increasing rate. This report examines the nature and risks of terrorist attacks that use the environment both as a target and a tool. It proposes several ideas for reducing the risk of environmental terrorism.

Resources

Website: The World’s Water: Water Conflict

The National Assessment of the Impacts of Climate Variability and Change

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Report Looks at Likely Effects of Climate Change on United States Water Resources — and the News Isn’t Good

The National Assessment of the Impacts of Climate Variability and Change was a groundbreaking attempt to evaluate the impacts of climate change on the United States.

Led by the United States Global Change Research Information Office, the National Assessment drew on hundreds of top scientists with expertise in different areas to create a peer-reviewed compendium of the best information then available on climate change.

The Pacific Institute’s Dr. Peter Gleick was tapped to be lead author of the analysis for U.S. water resources, which was published by the Pacific Institute and the U.S. Geological Survey in December of 2000.

“Water: The Potential Impacts of Climate Variability and Change” finds that United States water resources are seriously threatened by climate change. Climate change, or global warming, as it is sometimes called, will lead to significant changes in the timing and location of rain and snow in the United States (and elsewhere). By upsetting the current patterns of precipitation, cities, states, and farming communities face serious threats to their water supplies. Regions dependent on snow-fed water supplies will be especially threatened as rising temperatures change snowfall and snowmelt dynamics.

Many other changes are likely, including effects on water quality, reservoir reliability, and storm frequency and intensity. The National Assessment water report describes these impacts, summarizes the levels of certainty and uncertainty involved, and offers recommendations for additional research and analysis.

The National Assessment water sector report is available from our website without charge and the full report is available from the Global Change Research Information Office.

More About the National Assessment

More than 40 new, peer-reviewed papers were produced during the production of the National Assessment, and nearly 1000 more were evaluated and summarized. The report went through extensive external reviews, including reviews by the different assessment teams, a diverse advisory group, two separate formal external scientific review periods, and a 60-day public comment period.

Despite this extremely rigorous process, the industry-funded Competitive Enterprise Institute (CEI) filed suit against the Federal government in an attempt to suppress the report. After an extended legal battle, the lawsuit was dropped “with prejudice”, meaning the courts told the CEI that it could not be refilled because the suit was entirely without merit.

The World’s Water, Volume 2

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The second volume of The World’s Water contains new chapters on global water use projections, international river basins, the complex connections between water and food production, desalination, wastewater treatment and reuse, and the legal issues around a human right to water. As with the first volume, a large number of data tables are provided on a wide range of water-related issues, including water supply and demand, desalination capacity, reservoir construction, salinization of land, and updated numbers of endangered and threatened aquatic species. Available for purchase from the Island Press.

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The Millennium Development Goals for Water: Crucial Objectives, Inadequate Commitments

In this Series

Volume 9 Volume 8 Volume 7 Volume 6 Volume 5 Volume 4 Volume 3 Volume 1

Brownfields Redevelopment: Meeting the Challenges of Community Participation

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Brownfields are the abandoned or idled commercial and industrial properties that dot our urban and rural landscapes. They often remain unused because of real or perceived contamination, liability risks, and the costs of cleanup.

For brownfields redevelopment to truly fulfill its promise of neighborhood revitalization, and to be sustainable, it must offer benefits to the communities surrounding brownfield sites and break the cycle that created brownfields in the first place. The best way to do that is to make communities active participants in the redevelopment of the properties.

This report is designed to provide communities, government agencies, and private actors with sound recommendations and examples to improve and promote community participation in brownfields redevelopment. The report includes the following:

Chapter 1 defines brownfields and discusses issues of sustainability and environmental justice;
Chapter 2 provides an overview of community participation in brownfields redevelopment: community impacts and opportunities; the benefits of community participation; principles of effective community participation; and the role of communities in the redevelopment process;
Chapter 3 provides an overview of the formal avenues for community participation provided by state, local, and federal governments in the redevelopment process;
Chapter 4 identifies gaps in the formal participation processes and draws from case studies to illustrate actions taken to effectively include the community in the process;
Chapter 5 provides recommendations on improving community participation in the redevelopment process.

The six case studies covered include:

Richmond North Shoreline Area: The city of Richmond developed a brownfields program to redevelop the 900-acre North Shoreline area. While the city is trying to promote redevelopment of the area by working with property owners to make their sites more marketable to developers, the city has also made efforts to inform and involve nearby neighborhoods in discussions about reuse, cleanup, and redevelopment activities.
San Diego/Barrio Logan: Led by a local community-based organization, the Environmental Health Coalition, residents in San Diego’s Barrio Logan neighborhood have organized to relocate industrial sites located next to residences.
North Fork Mill site: In northern California, the North Fork Community Development Council has led an effort to purchase a 135-acre former mill site, and initiated a community process to draft a master plan for redeveloping the site.
Fruitvale Transit Village: The nonprofit Unity Council has led an effort to redesign and develop a proposed regional
rail parking lot into a transit village with a health clinic, senior center, and cultural library that better integrates the transit station with the community’s business district.
Oakland’s old Merritt College site: North Oakland residents engaged in a lengthy battle to preserve a historic site and participate in the restoration, redesign, and redevelopment of the site into a senior center, cultural museum, community garden, housing, and hospital expansion.
Covina’s Edna Park: Residents in Covina, in southern California, were involved in the cleanup and restoration of a community park to protect public health and prevent the site from becoming a brownfields site.

Comments on the Salton Sea Restoration Project

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Full Document

This document contains comments submitted by the Pacific Institute on the Salton Sea Restoration Project and on the January 2000 draft Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact Report (DEIS) and supporting documents.

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Webpage: Salton Sea

Managing a Better Environment: Opportunities and Obstacles for ISO 14001 in Public Policy and Commerce

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Environmental policy is in transition. Many observers believe that the existing regulatory system, though it has accomplished great improvements in environmental quality, is approaching the limits of its effectiveness. Government regulators and policy analysts are seeking better ways to address the many issues, like non-point source pollution, that remain largely unregulated. Most corporations are seeking more cost-effective ways to meet regulatory requirements, and some leading corporations are recognizing environmental protection as part of their mission (and their image). Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local communities want a cleaner and safer environment, and are trying to ensure that their voices and interests are heard. “Environmental management systems” (EMSs) are emerging as an important tool in all those efforts.

In response to a proliferation of EMSs, many efforts have been made in recent years to standardize them. As part of this undertaking, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed ISO 14001, now the dominant EMS standard worldwide. ISO 14001 is only one standard in the ISO 14000 series, which includes standards for auditing procedures, measurement and evaluation of an organization’s environmental performance, “green labeling,” and assessment of the full range of environmental impacts associated with an organization’s products and activities (termed “life cycle assessment”). This report examines the nexus of these standards with public policy and the potential for far-reaching impacts on environmental quality and the manner in which governments, industries, and NGOs interact on environmental protection issues. EMSs provide a mechanism for organizations of any size to improve the way they manage their environmental activities. EMSs are comprehensive (i.e., encompass the entire production process), and strive for “continual improvement” – rather than focusing on fixed discharge limits and “end of the pipe” pollution abatement and controls, as does the current regulatory system. ISO 14001 is a basic EMS; it provides a general framework for the role of top management, the setting of performance objectives, employee training, documentation, and continual assessment of the system’s performance. A private certification system potentially offers objective evidence that an organization has fulfilled the standard’s requirements. Implemented conscientiously, ISO 14001 would be an excellent tool for the management of society’s environmental impacts. However, it was not intended as a policy instrument, and implemented without transparency and accountability, ISO 14001 could in fact be counter-productive.

While the potential environmental benefits of the ISO 14000 environmental management standards are substantial, there are many unanswered questions about how they will be applied in practice and their ultimate effect on environmental quality. This study is the result of a two-year investigation of the development, implementation, and potential applications of the ISO 14000 series both in the U.S. and internationally, with a principle focus on the ISO 14001 EMS standard. Our goal is to clarify the benefits and limitations of the ISO 14000 standards and to evaluate their effects on society and public policy generally. Managing a Better Environment: Opportunities and Obstacles for ISO 14001 in Public Policy and Commerce examines the standards in the context of their potential to advance the “three Es” of sustainable development – economy, environment, and equity. Our analysis covers both the creation of the standards and their implications for global commerce and environmental protection. We pay particular attention to ISO itself and argue for changes in the organization’s membership. We then discuss the ISO 14001 EMS standard – its essential requirements and its certification process – and follow that with an assessment of the benefits and limitations of EMSs. Three case studies are provided, describing the emergence of ISO 14001 as an environmental regulatory tool in the United States. Finally, we offer conclusions and recommendations on how the ISO 14000 series standards might be integrated into existing commercial practices, regulatory structures, and trade regimes in a socially equitable and environmentally beneficial manner.

Colorado River Surplus Criteria Proposal

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Robert Johnson
Regional Director
Lower Colorado River Region
Bureau of Reclamation
PO Box 61470
Boulder City, NV 89006

RE: Colorado River Interim Surplus Criteria

February 15, 2000

Dear Mr. Hayes and Mr. Johnson:

On behalf of American Rivers, Defenders of Wildlife, Environmental Defense, Friends of Arizona Rivers, Glen Canyon Institute, Grand Canyon Trust, Land and Water Fund of the Rockies, the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security, Sierra Club, and the Sonoran Institute, we submit the following set of interim surplus criteria. We support the development of interim surplus criteria that would facilitate California’s reduction in demands on the Colorado River to 4.4 million acre-feet (maf) per year by the year 2015. Yet, absent explicit environmental safeguards, interim surplus criteria for the Colorado River could have long-term negative impacts on the Colorado River Delta. We write to ensure that the needs of the Delta are recognized and satisfied as California implements its 4.4 Plan. We submit the following general set of interim surplus criteria as an alternative that would balance the municipal and industrial (M&I) water needs of Southern California and Southern Nevada with the instream flow requirements of the lower Colorado River and its Delta. We urge you to consider these interim criteria in the upcoming draft Environmental Impact Statement.

In his speech before the Colorado River Water Users Association in Las Vegas last December, the Secretary of the Interior described an important environmental baseline that should inform the development of interim surplus criteria. The Secretary stated that surpluses must be determined and allocated with no net loss of environmental benefits. “No net loss” sets an important minimum standard and is a welcome commitment by the Secretary.

Background

Historically, prior to the construction of dams, diversions, and other reclamation projects, millions of acre-feet of Colorado
River water flowed every year through the Colorado River Delta and into the Upper Gulf of California, supporting tremendous levels of biological productivity and diversity. The Delta has been degraded as human demands have dramatically reduced the amount of water reaching the Delta. Except for years with unusually high run-off, virtually the entire flow of the Colorado is now captured and used before reaching the river’s mouth. However, even without the historic flows, the remnants of the Delta and Upper Gulf still comprise the largest and most critical desert wetland in North America, as well as one of the world’s most diverse and productive marine ecosystems. In recent years, flood release flows from upstream dams have prompted the re-emergence of ecologically valuable riparian habitat and have been strongly correlated with a rise in the shrimp catch in the Upper Gulf, an indication of the renewed viability of an important estuary. In 1993, Mexico affirmed the importance of the region and designated it a Biosphere Reserve, which has since received international recognition.

At its upper reaches, the Delta is dominated by vegetation such as cottonwoods and willows, offering more than twice the amount of native riparian habitat found in the entire reach of the river in the United States from Hoover Dam to Morelos Dam. The native riparian vegetation of the lower Colorado River and the Delta evolved in response to occasional flood events; such flows must be replicated to ensure the continued viability of these species. The middle extent of the Delta contains extensive backwaters filled by occasional floods, providing valuable wetland habitat for migratory birds as well as a myriad of local species. The Delta supports several species listed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, including southwestern willow flycatchers (Empidonax traillii extimus), Yuma clapper rails (Rallus longirostris yumanensis), totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi) and desert pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius), while the river’s estuary is home to the vaquita porpoise Phocoena sinus), the world’s most endangered marine mammal.

Interest in the Delta of the Colorado River has grown markedly in the past decade. Scientists from Mexico and the United States are studying the physical and biological characteristics of the region, increasing our understanding of its value not only as a desert wetland and stopover on the Pacific Flyway, but also as a species reservoir for the lower Colorado River as a whole. Historically, plant and animal species moved upstream to re-colonize the riparian corridor of the lower Colorado after periodic large-magnitude floods devastated that reach of the river. Recent, preliminary research indicates that the quantity of Colorado River baseline flows necessary to sustain the upper reaches of the Delta on an annual basis is at least 32,000 acre-feet, with periodic flood flows of at least 260,000 acre-feet every four years, on average, to promote seedling recruitment ¹. These instream flows thus represent the minimum quantities necessary to prevent a net loss of environmental benefits in the upper reaches of the Delta. (Such flood flows would also have a demonstrable salutary effect on the lower reach of the Colorado River within the United States, freshening backwaters and promoting germination of native vegetation.) Ongoing research will further improve our understanding of the ecosystems of the Delta and Upper Gulf. This research will also describe the instream flow requirements of other elements of the system. When they become available, these refined assessments of instream flow requirements should be incorporated into the interim surplus criteria described in the following.

No Net Loss

The Secretary’s “no net loss” standard should be applied to the losses to the Delta from allocating “surplus” water to California and to any other potential losses in the United States or Mexico. No water shall be considered surplus until the Secretary has been assured, through a plan for releases of sufficient instream flows, mitigation, reservoir management, and other measures, that additional consumptive use would cause no net loss of the environmental benefits that would result if the potential “surplus” were left in the river. Water is surplus only if those benefits are maintained by flows or through mitigation. Managing water available in the river after satisfying the lower basin and Mexican apportionments could benefit riparian areas or wetlands or fish and wildlife or endangered species or water quality, in the United States and/or in Mexico. If there is scientific evidence that these benefits would be lost by consuming the water, no determination of surplus shall be made until the loss of those benefits can be mitigated.

An assessment of the environmental benefits that could accrue if the erstwhile surplus water were not consumed is therefore a prerequisite to allocating surpluses. Conducting such an assessment will require a well-funded adaptive management program for the Delta that includes monitoring and research. Such a program should be an integral component of the interim surplus criteria. Such an adaptive management program is necessary to understanding the environmental baseline and satisfying the Secretary’s no net loss standard.

Discretion

Allocation of surplus water, over and above the basic lower basin apportionment, is a discretionary function of the Secretary that can and should be exercised consistent with other responsibilities incumbent upon him for allocating the benefits of the river, planning its use, and protecting its resources. Past decisions on development, basic allocations, and operations were made before most of those other responsibilities had been articulated under laws and policies of the United States. This has resulted in serious environmental harm. Given this situation, the Secretary can and should use his discretion in this more enlightened era to the maximum extent possible to ensure that his decisions result in no further harm and, wherever possible, in an improvement of environmental quality.

Environmental needs must be met before any quantity of discretionary water is dedicated to consumptive uses. Until then it is not truly “surplus.” Environmental losses were perhaps unfortunate consequences of the basic allocations embedded in the law of the river and related development; but they need not be perpetuated when the Secretary has discretion over whether and when to allocate additional water. The Secretary recognized as much when he insisted that the surpluses must be determined and allocated with no net loss of environmental benefits.

Surplus Criteria

We support the development of interim surplus criteria to guide the Secretary of the Interior’s decision to determine a surplus condition for the Colorado River. We agree that interim surplus criteria should facilitate California’s reduction in consumptive use of Colorado River water down to California’s entitlement of 4.4 maf/year. Since the objective is California’s successful and timely implementation of a 4.4 Plan, surplus criteria should be interim and should be explicitly linked to California’s diligent and timely reduction of demand on Colorado River water. We are in general agreement with the principle offered by the Six States’ proposal that interim surplus criteria should be directed towards providing greater security of supply through the Colorado River Aqueduct (CRA), after all other potential sources of Colorado River water are exhausted. We further agree that the declaration of surplus under the interim criteria should be explicitly linked to California’s diligent implementation of water conservation strategies as specified in the 4.4 Plan, and that surplus allocations should be suspended in the absence of such implementation. In any case, these interim criteria should expire in 2015.

Absent a prolonged above-average cycle of precipitation in the Upper Basin and explicit environmental safeguards, the interim surplus criteria would reduce Colorado River reservoir storage, in turn decreasing the likelihood of the flood release and space-building flows that sustain the Colorado River Delta, undermining efforts to restore and preserve the Delta and violating the Secretary’s no net loss standard.Prior to the implementation of interim surplus criteria, there must be a guaranteed delivery of water to the Delta. Surplus conditions should not be declared until sufficient water is identified and scheduled to be delivered to meet the water needs of the Delta, as described above. Article II(A) of the Supreme Court Decree (1964) states that “river regulation” and flood control are the Secretary’s first priority in managing the Colorado River, precedent over deliveries for consumptive uses. “River regulation” has yet to be satisfactorily defined; today it necessarily encompasses the full range of the Secretary’s authority and missions under current law including but not limited to fish and wildlife, recreation, water quality, and conservation of endangered species. As a first priority under the Decree, “river regulation” would therefore permit the delivery of water to the Delta as described below. We recommend an interim tiered strategy to meeting the needs of both the Delta and the municipal and industrial needs of California’s coastal plain and of southern Nevada. This tiered strategy is a modified version of that proposed by the Six States in December 1998. In this modified approach, guarantees of delivery to satisfy the baseline needs of the Delta would be made before any surplus flows for M&I could be allocated in the United States or Mexico. In the tiered interim surplus strategy outlined in the following, surplus agricultural deliveries could only be scheduled after the Secretary makes his no net loss determination as described above, including scheduling the necessary delta flood flows. Diversions for off-stream storage and groundwater banking would be permitted from flood release flows.

Proposed Interim Surplus Criteria

No water shall be considered surplus until the Secretary has been assured, through a plan for releases of sufficient instream flows, mitigation, reservoir management, and other measures, that additional consumptive use would cause no net loss of the environmental benefits that would result if the potential “surplus” were left in the river. If there is scientific evidence that these benefits would be lost by consuming the water, no determination of surplus shall be made until the loss of those benefits can be mitigated. The Secretary shall make a no net loss determination before releases at any of the three surplus tiers – partial M&I, full M&I, or full surplus.

The Secretary’s no net loss determination shall be based on an assessment of the lower Colorado River as a whole, including the Colorado River Delta. Conducting such an assessment will require a well-funded adaptive management program for the Delta that includes monitoring and research. Current research, based on empirical evidence from the past decade, suggests that the baseline and Delta flood flow releases described below may serve as interim mitigation measures. The Delta flow requirements and other conditions necessary to achieve no net loss shall be adjusted from time to time as the Secretary deems appropriate based on scientific and technical information.

The surplus criteria described below are interim and are intended to expire in 2015.

Normal Year
Normal years will be declared when available Lake Mead storage is at or below elevation 1120.4 (13.40 maf storage). This level will allow a minimum of five years of normal year deliveries through a drought cycle represented by the 34^th percentile lowest five year average of historic runoff. At the end of the five-year period, the reservoir elevation would be at 1083, which is the minimum power head (9.764 maf content).
Baseline Delta Flows
When Lake Mead storage is above elevation 1120.4, the Bureau of Reclamation will deliver at least 32,000 af to the Delta. These waters shall be released on a consistent, regular basis, to provide a perennial flow for the upper reaches of the Delta.
Partial M&I Surplus
Equivalent to the Six States’ 1998 proposal, that releases will be dependent on the water demands in the given year, reduced by the conservation opportunities available in dry years. This tier yields a maximum surplus of about 412,000 af for California and half of Nevada’s demonstrated surplus demand. Total volume of this tier is equivalent to that needed to deliver 1.212 maf through the CRA, considering the amount of core transfer programs already in place, less 250,000 af. This tier is implemented between Lake Mead elevation 1125 and elevation 1145, upon a “no net loss” determination by the Secretary, as described above, and based on such conditions and operational changes as the Secretary may require.
Full M&I Surplus Equivalent to the Six States’ 1998 proposal. This would effectively make available an additional 250,000 af for MWD, after other sources had been exhausted, and would satisfy southern Nevada’s full M&I needs. In this tier, surpluses could not be used for offstream storage, groundwater banking, or agricultural uses. This tier is triggered at Lake Mead elevation 1145, upon a “no net loss” determination by the Secretary, as described above, and based on such conditions and operational changes as the Secretary may require.
Delta Flood Flows
This tier is triggered by the Bureau of Reclamation’s 70 percent flood control avoidance (70A1) elevation, which is the elevation required on January 1 to avoid flood control releases with a 70% assurance over the next sixty years. This is a slightly more liberal definition of surplus than the Bureau’s “70R” criteria. When the surface of Lake Mead exceeds this elevation at the beginning of the year, the Bureau will deliver at least 260,000 af to the Delta.² These waters shall be released as late in the Spring as possible without violating Army Corps of Engineers flood control release guidelines.
Full Surplus
Upon a “no net loss” determination by the Secretary, as described above, and based on such conditions and operational changes as the Secretary may require, this tier is triggered when an assumed runoff, set at the 70th percentile of exceedance (roughly 17.3 maf), less uses and losses and delta flood flows, would cause Lake Mead elevation on January 1 to exceed the required system space capacity of 5.35 maf. In this tier, agricultural uses would be permitted, in addition to the M&I permitted in previous tiers.

Shortage Criteria

Mexico and the Delta
If at any time surplus flows intended to benefit the Delta are intercepted and consumed by users within Mexico, further deliveries of surplus waters for such purposes shall cease unless and until Mexico enters into a commitment to prevent future releases from being diverted and consumed and to guarantee their delivery to the Delta.

Mexico and Surplus
Article 10 of the 1944 Treaty with Mexico grants the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC) the discretion to determine surplus flows to Mexico. It is therefore beyond the scope of the current process to set surplus criteria for Mexico.

Thank you for the opportunity to participate in this important process.

Sincerely,

Mindy Schlimgen-Wilson Associate Director Southwest Regional Office American Rivers	William J. Snape, III Legal Director Defenders of Wildlife
Dan Luecke Regional Director Environmental Defense	Timothy Flood Conservation Coordinator Friends of Arizona Rivers
Pamela Hyde Executive Director Glen Canyon Institute	Geoffrey S. Barnard President Grand Canyon Trust
Bruce C. Driver Executive Director Land and Water Fund of the Rockies	Jason Morrison Senior Associate Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security
Steve Cornelius Borderlands Director Sonoran Institute	Steve Glazer Chair Colorado River Task Force Sierra Club

cc: Bill Rinne, Bureau of Reclamation
Jayne Harkins, Bureau of Reclamation
Tom Ryan, Bureau of Reclamation
Larry Anderson, Utah Division of Water Resources
Wayne Cook, Upper Colorado River Commission
Gordon Fassett, Wyoming State Engineer
Thomas Hannigan, California Department of Water Resources
Patricia Mulroy, Southern Nevada Water Authority
Rita Pearson, Arizona Department of Water Resources
Thomas Turney, New Mexico State Engineer
Greg Walcher, Colorado Water Conservation Board
Gerald Zimmerman, Colorado River Board of California
John Bernal, IBWC
Arturo Herrera Solis, CILA
Julia Carabias Lillo, SEMARNAP
Francisco Oyarzabal Tamargo, Comision Nacional del Agua
Lic. José Samaniegos, SEMARNAP

ISO Proceedings

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On July 29, 1999, the Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment and Security hosted a half-day workshop entitled Security ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems and Public Policy. Approximately 30 people attended the event, with 16 public interest groups and 6 state and federal agency offices represented. Participants from the non-profit sector included state and national conservation organizations, environmental justice groups, and local community-based organizations. Government agencies represented included various offices within Cal/EPA, U.S. EPA Region IX, and U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (see Appendix A for a list of participants).

The purpose of the workshop was to provide a forum for the NGO community and state and federal agencies to discuss the emerging role of environmental management systems (EMSs), such as ISO 14001, within the context of public policy.

Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs

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An understanding of basic human water needs is key to ensuring fair and sustainable water supply. But how much water does a person need? This seemingly simple question depends on many variables. Defining basic water requirements in relation to four basic human needs, this article seeks to define a minimum basic requirement for water.

Haven or Hazard: The Ecology and Future of the Salton Sea

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California’s Salton Sea is a fertile oasis in the hostile desert of southeastern California, adopted by millions of birds migrating along the Pacific Flyway. The sea is plagued by a host of challenges, including a declining water supply, rising salinity, very high levels of nutrients that generate excessive algal growth and very low oxygen levels, and the general indifference of state and federal decision-makers.

Published in 1999, this report examines the history and condition of the lake, the threats to the region, and possible solutions to protect its value. Its context and findings remain relevant to current rehabilitation efforts seeking to protect this critical ecosystem, as well as the health of surrounding communities affected by dust blowing from the sea’s exposed lakebed.

Resources

Webpage: Salton Sea

Webpage: Current Information on the Salton Sea

In this Series

Hazard’s Toll: The Costs of Inaction at the Salton Sea

Hazard: The Future of the Salton Sea with No Restoration Project

Languages

Vision General Ejecutiva en Espanol (Executive Summary in Spanish)

The Human Right to Water

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More than a billion people in the developing world lack safe drinking water – an amenity those in the developed world take for granted. Nearly three billion people live without access to adequate sanitation systems necessary for reducing exposure to water-related diseases. The failure of the international aid community, nations, and local organizations to satisfy these basic human needs has led to substantial, unnecessary, and preventable human suffering. This paper argues that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly and explicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice. Governments, international aid agencies, non-governmental organizations, and local communities should work to provide all humans with a basic water requirement and to guarantee that water as a human right. By acknowledging a human right to water and expressing the willingness to meet this right for those currently deprived of it, the water community would have a useful tool for addressing one of the most fundamental failures of 20th century development.

Introduction

The 21st century will open with one of the most fundamental conditions of human development unmet: universal access to basic water services. More than a billion people in the developing world lack safe drinking water that those in the developed world take for granted. Nearly three billion people live without access to adequate sanitation systems necessary to reduce exposure to water-related diseases. The failure of the international aid community, nations, and local organizations to satisfy these basic human needs has led to substantial, unnecessary, and preventable human suffering. An estimated 14 to 30 thousand people, mostly young children and the elderly, die every day from water-related diseases. At any given moment, approximately one-half of the people in the developing world suffer from disease caused by drinking contaminated water or eating contaminated food (United Nations, 1997b). A diverse array of individuals, professional groups, private corporations, and public governmental and non-governmental interests have recently stepped up efforts to better manage and plan for meeting basic water needs in the next century. The outcome of these efforts will be vital to the health and well-being of billions of people. This paper argues that access to a basic water requirement is a fundamental human right implicitly supported by international law, declarations, and State practice. In some ways this right to water is even more basic and vital than some of the more explicit human rights already acknowledged by the international community, as can be seen by its recognition in some local customary laws or religious canon.

Sustainable Use of Water: California Water Success Stories

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The intense political and legal battles that have characterized California water policy throughout the 20th century have not ended—nor are they likely to end in the near future. But unexpectedly, with little fanfare or attention, California is moving toward more sustainable water management and use. In 1995, the Pacific Institute published California Water 2020: A Sustainable Vision, which presented a positive vision of where California water resources could be in the year 2020 and a detailed analysis of how to get there using existing and proven economic incentives, efficient water technologies, and innovative governmental and non-governmental management practices. That analysis offered compelling support for the argument that alternative approaches to water planning and use can be— and have been—very successful.

As a follow-up to the 1995 report, the Pacific Institute now offers Sustainable Use of Water: California Success Stories: 28 successful, informative, and educational examples of collaborative water planning, effective institutional and governance structures, intelligent use of technology or economic incentives, and environmental protection and restoration in areas where deadlock and litigation used to be the norm.

These “success stories” identify, describe, and analyze examples of sustainable water policies and practices in the state and show water managers, policymakers, and the public how to move California toward more equitable and efficient water management and use. As we stated in our 1995 report, long term sustainable use of water does not require drastic advances in technology or heroic or extraordinary actions. Instead it requires an ethic of sustainability and the will to continue expanding positive trends that are already underway. These “success stories” offer lessons for the rest of us—lessons about what works and why, and how we might begin to solve our other water problems.

The 28 success stories described here are the tip of the iceberg. In communities around the state, smart and committed individuals and groups are getting together to take water policy into their own hands. The result is a growing movement away from state or federally sponsored programs and policies and toward regional and local watershed and community actions, though several successful state and national activities are also described here. As a result, official state water policies now often lag behind— rather than define—the state-of-the-art. The official California Water Plan, for example, fails to acknowledge these many successful activities or to incorporate them into its projections for California’s water future. Integrating the lessons learned from these success stories into long-term policy and planning could lead to a very different California—one where efficient, equitable, and sustainable water uses are the norm, rather than the dream.

In compiling these 28 stories, several common themes and factors for success became clear. We describe these lessons and offer some common-sense recommendations for others interested in emulating the successes described here.

The World’s Water, Volume 1

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The first volume of The World’s Water (1998-1999) includes chapters on the changing global paradigm for water management and use, the environmental implications of large dams, possible consequences of climate change, and the links between water resources and conflict. The book also contains more than fifty charts, tables, and maps that present data on a range of topics including the availability and use of water, numbers of threatened and endangered species, dam and desalination capacity worldwide, and much more. Available for purchase from Island Press.

Resources

Table 13: Waterborne Disease Outbreaks in the United States Table 14: Hydroelectric Capacity and Production by Country, 1996 Table 16: Desalination Capacity by Country, January 1, 1996 Figure 1.8: Desalination Capacity chart Table 2.2: Estimates of Global Morbidity and Mortality of Water-Related Diseases

In this Series

Volume 9 Volume 8 Volume 7 Volume 6 Volume 5 Volume 4 Volume 3 Volume 2

The Sustainable Use of Water in the Lower Colorado River Basin

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As of 1996, the Colorado River supplied water to nearly 30 million people and irrigated more than 1.5 million hectares of farmland in the United States and Mexico. But the diversion of a huge amount of river water was causing serious harm to the balance of life that existed previously in the delta.

This report, a collaboration between the Global Water Policy Project and the Pacific Institute, defines the unsustainable nature of patterns of water use in the Colorado Basin. It demonstrates how technologies, policy actions, and management strategies can be combined to achieve a more sustainable use of water in the region, promoting economic prosperity while supporting ecosystem health.

Resources

Global Water Policy website

California Water 2020: A Sustainable Vision

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Every day, California wastes water in each sector of the the state’s economy. Steps must be taken to ensure there is enough water for people, businesses, agriculture, and the environment to thrive now and in the future. Although published in 1995, this report’s overall conclusion — that California water use is unsustainable and requires a new approach — is as true today as it was the day the report was published. The report presents a unique vision of a truly sustainable water future for California and lays out detailed steps to reach this vision, including expanding the use of water-efficient technologies and practices and ending the non-renewable use of groundwater in California.

Resources

Chapters 1-4

Chapters 5-9

Water and Conflict: Fresh Water Resources and International Security

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Fresh water is a fundamental resource, integral to all ecological and societal activities, including food and energy production, transportation, waste disposal, industrial development, and human health. Yet fresh water resources are unevenly and irregularly distributed, and some regions of the world are extremely water-short. As we approach the twenty-first century, water and water-supply systems are increasingly likely to be both objectives of military action and instruments of war as human populations grow, as improving standards of living increase the demand for fresh water, as global climactic changes make water supply and demand more problematic and uncertain. This article outlines the links between water and conflict, and presents some of the issues and information that make it possible to assess when and where water-related conflicts are most likely to occur. Tools for reducing the risks of such conflicts are also presented, together with recommendations for policymakers.

Environment and Drought in California 1987-1992

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The years 1987 to 1992 comprised the second driest period in California’s recorded climate history. For six years, precipitation in the state was only about three-quarters of the recorded average, while streamflow was a mere one-half of the average. many of the most severe and long-lasting impacts of the recent drought fell on the state’s natural environment. Moreover, future droughts are likely to cause still more severe impacts to California’s environmental resources.

Drought is a natural phenomenon, which may potentially contribute to stability of ecosystems over the long-term; however, the resistance of species and ecosystems to natural stresses is dependent upon the condition of ecosystems prior to the onset of drought. Highly modified ecosystems, such as those encountered throughout California, are much more likely to suffer permanent changes during extended dry periods. California’s plant and animal populations have weathered droughts of comparable severity in the past; yet there are many factors today that prevent wild populations from rebounding from a drought as they once might have. Among the most important are the extremely small size of many populations and the fragmentation of habitats. Small populations are more likely to become extinct as a result of droughts, while fragmented habitats make it impossible for species to migrate to seek better conditions during drought and also preclude the natural recolonization of areas following a sever drought.

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The Societal and Environmental Cost of the Continuing California Drought

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Since 1987, the State of California has been in the grip of a severe drought. water availability throughout the State has been far lower than normal for each of the last five years when measured in any of a variety of ways: total precipitation runoff, groundwater overdraft, or reservoir storage. The current drought is comparable in severity to the drought of the late 1920s and early 1930s, considered to be the worst drought on record and there is no guarantee that next year will be any wetter. The California Department of Water Resources has classified four of the last five years as “critically dry”, while the fifth was classified as “dry”.

We present here the information on the impacts and economic costs of the drought where they are available, for a wide variety of sectors. We also assess what the current drought tells us about California’s vulnerability to global climate change. We have avoided making an overall dollar estimate of the costs of the drought to California in part because such estimates can be misleading. They tend to focus attention on those impacts that can be easily quantified while undercounting those impacts that cannot be readily assessed in economic terms. Indeed, our study suggests that many of the most sever effects of the first four years of the drought have been in those sectors that are not adequately evaluated by economic measures, the State’s ecological resources: its fish, wildlife, forests, and natural ecosystems.

Based on the information collected for this report, we believe that the greatest impacts are currently falling on the environment, and that, moreover, many of the ecological effects may be irreversible. In addition, California will see substantial economic costs, totaling roughly $3 billion, as a result of decreased hydroelectric potential. Limited portions of the agricultural sector are also bearing heavy costs, although the effect on California’s overall farm income will be relatively small. While urban areas have suffered shortages, they have been manageable in most cases and have not cause major economic dislocations. The additional rainfall that the State received in March of this year helped to avert much more serious impacts int eh municipal and industrial sectors, but only modestly improved the conditions of ecosystems and the water supply for agriculture.

The drought is not over. With doubt, another dry year would result in much more severe situation than California has experienced thus far. Reservoir reserves have been drawn down to extremely low levels, some fisheries populations have been brought to the verge of extinction, if indeed they have not already been pushed over the edge, and ground-water reserves have been severely depleted in many agricultural regions.

Assessing The Costs Of Adapting to Sea-Level Rise: A Case Study of San Francisco Bay

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Across the United States, coastal communities are grappling with crumbling infrastructure, flooded businesses, and overflowing sewers as a result of climate change-induced sea-level rise. The value of property threatened by sea-level rise around the San Francisco Bay is particularly high. Published in 1990, this study presents useful methods for assessing the potential costs of protecting against sea-level rise. The report applies this method to the San Francisco Bay Area, exploring structural options and costs for protecting property in threatened areas.

Resources

Tool: Figure 7. Area of San Francisco Bay Threatened by a 1-meter Sea-Level Rise: Southern Portion

Tool: Figure 8. Area of San Francisco Bay Threatened by a 1-meter Sea-Level Rise: Northern Portion